癌症里程碑翻译之NCI
注：本文翻译自美国国立癌症研究院（NCI）的网页《Milestones in Cancer Research and Discovery》
During the past 250 years, we have witnessed many landmark discoveries in our efforts to make progress against cancer, an affliction known to humanity for thousands of years. This timeline shows a few key milestones in the history of cancer research.
在过去250年中，我们见证了在人类努力对抗癌症，这个人类上千年的灾难，过程中的很多重要的发现。这个时间表列出了很多重要的里程碑。
1775年，烟囱灰和鳞状细胞癌（Chimney Soot & Squamous Cell Carcinoma）
Percivall Pott identifies a relationship between exposure to chimney soot and the incidence of squamous cell carcinoma of the scrotum among chimney sweeps. His report is the first to clearly link an environmental exposure to the development of cancer.
波希瓦·帕特（Percivall Pott）鉴定了烟囱清洁工的阴囊鳞状细胞癌与烟囱灰暴露之间的关系。他的报告首次清晰地关联了环境暴露与癌症发展的关系。
1863年，炎症与癌症（Inflammation & Cancer）
Rudolph Virchow identifies white blood cells (leukocytes) in cancerous tissue, making the first connection between inflammation and cancer. Virchow also coins the term “leukemia” and is the first person to describe the excess number of white blood cells in the blood of patients with this disease.
鲁道夫·菲尔绍（Rudolph Virchow）鉴定出癌组织中的白细胞，首次明确了炎症与癌症的关系。他也创造了“白血病”这个词，首次描述了在患者的血液存在过量白细胞这一现象。
1882年，首次使用根除性乳房切除术治疗乳腺癌（The First Radical Mastectomy to Treat Breast Cancer）
William Halsted performs the first radical mastectomy to treat breast cancer. This surgical procedure remains the standard operation for breast cancer until the latter half of the 20th century.
威廉·史都华·豪斯泰德（William Halsted）首次做了根除性乳房切除术用来治疗乳腺癌。该手术直到20世纪后叶都是乳腺癌的标准治疗方法。
1886年，癌症危险因素的遗传（Inheritance of Cancer Risk）
Brazilian ophthalmologist Hilário de Gouvêa provides the first documented evidence that a susceptibility to cancer can be inherited from a parent to a child. He reports that two of seven children born to a father who was successfully treated for childhood retinoblastoma, a malignant tumor of the eye, also developed the disease.
巴西的眼科医师Hilário de Gouvêa提供了一个可有文档的证据，癌症的易感性可以从父母遗传给孩子。他报道了一个视网膜母细胞瘤被成功治愈的父亲的7个孩子，其中2个也得了这种病。
1895年，首次X射线（The First X-Ray）
Wilhelm Roentgen discovers X-rays. The first X-ray picture is an image of one of his wife’s hands.
威廉·伦琴（Wilhelm Roentgen）发现了X线。第一张X线图片是他妻子的一只手。
1898年，镭和钋（Radium & Polonium）
Marie and Pierre Curie discover the radioactive elements radium and polonium. Within a few years, the use of radium in cancer treatment begins.
居里夫妇发现了放射性的元素镭和钋。之后几年，使用镭来治疗癌症开始了。
1902年，癌症与染色体损伤的单细胞（Cancer Tumors & Single Cells with Chromosome Damage）
Theodor Boveri proposes that cancerous tumors arise from single cells that have experienced chromosome damage and suggests that chromosome alterations cause the cells to divide uncontrollably.
西奥多·博韦里（Theodor Boveri）提出癌症可以从一个染色体算上的单细胞产生，染色体变异可以引起细胞不受控制的分裂。
1903年，首次使用放疗治疗癌症（The First Use of Radiation Therapy to Cure Cancer）
S.W. Goldberg and Efim London describe the use of radium to treat two patients with basal cell carcinoma of the skin. The disease was eradicated in both patients.
S.W. Goldberg and Efim London使用镭去治疗了2个患有基底細胞皮肤癌的病人。疾病在2个病人中被清楚。
1909年，免疫监视（Immune Surveillance）
Paul Ehrlich proposes that the immune system usually suppresses tumor formation, a concept that becomes known as the “immune surveillance” hypothesis. This proposal prompts research, which continues today, to harness the power of the immune system to fight cancer.
保罗·埃尔利希(Paul Ehrlich)提出了“免疫监视”这一概念，指出免疫系统通常是可以抑制肿瘤形成的。这个概念促进的科学研究直到今天还在进行，人们利用免疫系统来对抗癌症。
1911年，鸡的癌症（Cancer in Chickens）
Peyton Rous discovers a virus that causes cancer in chickens (Rous sarcoma virus), establishing that some cancers are caused by infectious agents.
裴顿·劳斯(Peyton Rous)发现了一种可以引起鸡得癌症的病毒（劳氏肉瘤病毒），提出了一些癌症是由传染媒介引起的。
1915年，兔子的癌症（Cancer in Rabbits）
Katsusaburo Yamagiwa and Koichi Ichakawa induce cancer in rabbits by applying coal tar to their skin, providing experimental proof that chemicals can cause cancer.
山极胜三郎和市川厚一将煤焦油涂在兔子的皮肤上，诱导兔子患上癌症，为化学物质引起癌症提供了实验证据。
1928年，宫颈刮片（The Pap Smear）
George Papanicolaou discovers that cervical cancer can be detected by examining cells from the vagina under a microscope. This breakthrough leads to the development of the Pap test, which allows abnormal cervical cells to be detected and removed before they become cancerous.
乔治·帕帕尼古拉乌（George Papanicolaou）发现子宫颈癌可以通过使用显微镜查看阴道的细胞检测到。这个突破性的进展推动了巴氏涂片检查（Pap test）的发展，可以使得异常的子宫颈细胞在他们变得恶性之前被检测和清楚。
1932年，改进的根除性乳房切除术（The Modified Radical Mastectomy for Breast Cancer）
David H. Patey develops the modified radical mastectomy for breast cancer. This surgical procedure is less disfiguring than the radical mastectomy and eventually replaces it as the standard surgical treatment for breast cancer.
David H. Patey研发了改进版的根除性乳房切除术。手术的过程更少的毁坏形象，进而成为了乳腺癌的标准手术方法。
1937年，美国国立癌症研究院（The National Cancer Institute, NCI)
Legislation signed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt establishes the National Cancer Institute (NCI).
美国总统富兰克林·罗切特签署法案，建立了美国国立癌症研究院。
1937年，乳房保留手术联合放疗（Breast-Sparing Surgery Followed by Radiation）
Sir Geoffrey Keynes describes the treatment of breast cancer with breast-sparing surgery followed by radiation therapy. After surgery to remove the tumor, long needles containing radium are inserted throughout the affected breast and near the adjacent axillary lymph nodes.
Sir Geoffrey Keynes描述了使用乳房保留手术联合放疗的方法。在手术切除肿瘤后，含有镭的长针会插入到受影响的乳房和附近的腋下的淋巴结。
1941年，激素疗法（Hormonal Therapy）
Charles Huggins discovers that removing the testicles to lower testosterone production or administering estrogens causes prostate tumors to regress. Such hormonal manipulation—more commonly known as hormonal therapy—continues to be a mainstay of prostate cancer treatment.
查尔斯·布兰顿·哈金斯（harles Huggins）发现降低睾酮产生的睾丸切除，或者是服用雌激素可以使得前列腺癌消退。这样的调节激素的疗法依然是前列腺癌治疗的主流。
1947年，抗代谢物（Antimetabolites）
Sidney Farber shows that treatment with the antimetabolite drug aminopterin, a derivative of folic acid, induces temporary remissions in children with acute leukemia. Antimetabolite drugs are structurally similar to chemicals needed for important cellular processes, such as DNA synthesis, and cause cell death by blocking those processes.
西德尼·法伯（Sidney Farber）提出使用抗代谢药物氨基蝶呤（一种叶酸的衍生物）可以诱导儿童的急性白血病暂时缓解。抗代谢药物从结构上与DNA合成等重要细胞过程所需要的化学物类似，从而通过阻断这些过程导致细胞死亡。
1949年，氮芥（Nitrogen Mustard）
The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approves nitrogen mustard (mechlorethamine) for the treatment of cancer. Nitrogen mustard belongs to a class of drugs called alkylating agents, which kill cells by chemically modifying their DNA.
美国食品药品管理局（FDA）批准氮芥（二氯甲基二乙胺）治疗癌症。氮芥属于烷化剂的一种，他们可以通过化学上改变DNA来杀死细胞。
1950年，吸烟与肺癌（Cigarette Smoking & Lung Cancer）
Ernst Wynder, Evarts Graham, and Richard Doll identify cigarette smoking as an important factor in the development of lung cancer.
Ernst Wynder, Evarts Graham, and Richard Doll证明吸烟是肺癌发病的重要因素。
1953年，首次完全治愈一个实体瘤（The First Complete Cure of a Human Solid Tumor）
Roy Hertz and Min Chiu Li achieve the first complete cure of a human solid tumor by chemotherapy when they use the drug methotrexate to treat a patient with choriocarcinoma, a rare cancer of the reproductive tissue that mainly affects women.
Roy Hertz和李敏求通过化疗完成了首次实体瘤痊愈。他们使用药物甲氨蝶呤来治疗绒（毛）膜癌患者。其实一种主要发病在女性的生殖组织的罕见癌症。
1958年，联合化疗（Combination Chemotherapy）
NCI researchers Emil Frei, Emil Freireich, and James Holland and their colleagues demonstrate that combination chemotherapy with the drugs 6-mercaptopurine and methotrexate can induce partial and complete remissions and prolong survival in children and adults with acute leukemia.
NCI的研究院Emil Frei、Emil Freireich、James Hollan以及他们的同事证明了6-巯基嘌呤（6-MP）和甲氨蝶呤联合化疗可以使得儿童和成人急性白血病部分或者全部环节，并延长他们的生存时间。
1960年，费城染色体（The Philadelphia Chromosome）
Peter Nowell and David Hungerford describe an unusually small chromosome in the cancer cells of patients with chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML). This chromosome, which becomes known as the Philadelphia chromosome, is found in the leukemia cells of 95% of patients with CML.
Peter Nowell和David Hungerford在慢性髓细胞白血病患者的癌细胞中发现了一个不常见的小段染色体。这个染色体后来被称为费城染色体，在95%的慢性髓细胞白血病患者中发现。
1964年，聚焦吸烟（A Focus on Cigarette Smoking）
The U.S. Surgeon General issues a report stating that cigarette smoking is an important health hazard in the United States and that action is required to reduce its harmful effects.
美国外科总署发布报告称，在美国吸烟是重要的健康风险因素，并要求采取行动减低吸烟的有害影响。
1964年，EB病毒（The Epstein-Barr virus）
For the first time, a virus—the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)—is linked to a human cancer (Burkitt lymphoma). EBV is later shown to cause several other cancers, including nasopharyngeal carcinoma, Hodgkin lymphoma, and some gastric (stomach) cancers.
人类首次将一种病毒（EB病毒）和癌症（Burkitt淋巴癌）关联。EB病毒之后被证明会引起多种癌症，包括鼻咽癌、霍奇金淋巴瘤和一些胃癌。
1971年，全国癌症法案（The National Cancer Act）
On December 23, President Richard M. Nixon signs the National Cancer Act, which authorizes the NCI Director to coordinate all activities of the National Cancer Program, establish national cancer research centers, and establish national cancer control programs.
在12月23日，美国总统尼克松签署了全国癌症法案，授权NCI的院长负责协调所有国家的癌症项目，建立国家级的癌症研究中心，国家级的癌症防控项目。
1976年，鸡的正常细胞的DNA（The DNA of Normal Chicken Cells）
Dominique Stehelin, Harold Varmus, J. Michael Bishop, and Peter Vogt discover that the DNA of normal chicken cells contains a gene related to the oncogene (cancer-causing gene) of avian sarcoma virus, which causes cancer in chickens. This finding eventually leads to the discovery of human oncogenes.
Dominique Stehelin、Harold Varmus、J. Michael Bishop和Peter Vogt发现鸡的正常的细胞的DNA含有一个基因与禽类肉瘤病毒的癌基因相关，从而引起鸡得癌症。这个发现最终推动了对于人类癌基因的研究。
1978年，他莫昔芬（Tamoxifen）
The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approves tamoxifen, an antiestrogen drug originally developed as a birth control treatment, for the treatment of breast cancer. Tamoxifen represents the first of a class of drugs known as selective estrogen receptor modulators, or SERMs, to be approved for cancer therapy.
FDA批准了抗雌激素药物他莫昔芬用来治疗乳腺癌，该药原来是用来计划生育的。他莫昔芬是选择性雌激素受体调节剂这类药物中第一个被批准治疗癌症的。
1979年，TP53基因（The TP53 Gene）
The TP53 gene (also called p53), the most commonly mutated gene in human cancer, is discovered. It is a tumor suppressor gene, meaning its protein product (p53 protein) helps control cell proliferation and suppress tumor growth.
TP53基因（也叫作p53）这一人类癌细胞中最常突变的基因被发现。他是一个抑癌基因，意味着其翻译的蛋白质可以控制细胞增殖、抑制癌症生长。
1984年，发现HER2癌基因（HER2 Oncogene Identified）
Researchers discover a new oncogene in rat cells that they call “neu.” The human version of this gene, called HER2 (and ErbB2), is overexpressed in about 20% to 25% of breast cancers (known as HER2-positive breast cancers) and is associated with more aggressive disease and a poor prognosis.
研究人员在大鼠的细胞中发现了一个新的癌基因，被称为“neu”。而其对应的人类基因HER2（和ErbB2）在20%-25%的乳腺癌中过表达（被称为HER2-阳性乳腺癌），并且与恶性病变、较差预后相关。
1984年，人乳头瘤病毒16和18（HPV 16 & 18）
DNA from human papillomavirus (HPV) types 16 and 18 is identified in a large percentage of cervical cancers, establishing a link between infection with these HPV types and cervical carcinogenesis.
人乳头瘤病毒16和18的DNA在很高比例的子宫颈癌中被发现，建立起HPV和宫颈癌变之间的关系。
1985年，乳房保留手术（Breast-Conserving Surgery）
Results from an NCI-supported clinical trial show that women with early-stage breast cancer who were treated with breast-conserving surgery (lumpectomy) followed by whole-breast radiation therapy had similar rates of overall survival and disease-free survival as women who were treated with mastectomy alone.
NCI资助的临床研究结果显示，早期乳腺癌妇女使用乳房保留手术联合全乳房化疗方案和乳房切除术单一方案总体生存比例和无病生存比例相似。
1986年年，HER2癌基因克隆（HER2 Oncogene Cloning）
The human oncogene HER2 (also called neu and erbB2) is cloned. Overexpression of the protein product of this gene, which occurs in about 20% to 25% of breast cancers (known as HER2-positive breast cancers), is associated with more aggressive disease and a poor prognosis.
人类的癌基因HER2（也叫作neu和erbB2）被克隆。该基因在在20%-25%的乳腺癌中过表达（被称为HER2-阳性乳腺癌），并且与恶性病变、较差预后相关。
1993年，粪便隐血实验（Guaiac Fecal Occult Blood Testing, FOBT)
Results from an NCI-supported clinical trial show that annual screening with guaiac fecal occult blood testing (FOBT) can reduce colorectal cancer mortality by about 33%.
NCI资助的临床研究结果表明每年的粪便隐血试验可以降低结肠直肠癌死亡率33%。
1994年，BRCA1抑癌基因克隆（BRCA1 Tumor Suppressor Gene Cloning）
The tumor suppressor gene BRCA1 is cloned. Specific inherited mutations in this gene greatly increase the risks of breast and ovarian cancer in women and the risks of several other cancers in both men and women.
抑癌基因BRCA1被克隆。此基因特定的遗传性突变会极大的增加女性患乳腺癌和卵巢癌的风险，同时也会增加很多其他癌症在男性和女性中的风险。
1995年，BRCA2抑癌基因克隆（BRCA2 Tumor Suppressor Gene Cloning）
The tumor suppressor gene BRCA2 is cloned. Similar to BRCA1, inheriting specific BRCA2 gene mutations greatly increases the risks of breast and ovarian cancer in women and the risks of several other cancers in both men and women.
抑癌基因BRCA2被克隆。与BRCA1类似，BRCA2特定的遗传性突变会极大的增加女性患乳腺癌和卵巢癌的风险，同时也会增加很多其他癌症在男性和女性中的风险。
1996年，阿那曲唑（Anastrozole）
The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approves anastrozole for the treatment of estrogen receptor-positive advanced breast cancer in postmenopausal women. Anastrozole is the first aromatase inhibitor (a drug that blocks the production of estrogen in the body) to be approved for cancer therapy.
FDA批准阿那曲唑治疗绝经后的雌激素受体阳性的晚期乳腺癌女性患者。阿那曲唑是第一个被批准用于治疗癌症的芳香酶抑制剂（指抑制体内雌激素产生的药物）。
1997年，利妥昔单抗（Rituximab）
The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approves rituximab, a monoclonal antibody, for use in patients with treatment-resistant, low-grade or follicular B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL). Rituximab is later approved as an initial treatment for these types of NHL, for another type of NHL called diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, and for chronic lymphocytic leukemia.
FDA批准利妥昔单抗用于治疗耐药的、低度的或者滤泡性的B细胞非霍奇金淋巴瘤（NHL）。利妥昔单抗之后又被批准用于这些类型淋巴瘤的早期治疗，还有弥漫大B淋巴瘤和慢性粒细胞白血病。
1998年，NCI资助的乳腺癌预防试验（NCI-Sponsored Breast Cancer Prevention Trial）
Results of the NCI-sponsored Breast Cancer Prevention Trial show that the antiestrogen drug tamoxifen can reduce the incidence of breast cancer among women who are at increased risk of the disease by about 50%. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approves tamoxifen to reduce the incidence of breast cancer in women at increased risk.
NCI资助的乳腺癌预防临床试验显示抗雌激素药物他莫昔芬可以降低乳腺癌高风险女性50%的发病率。FDA批准他莫昔芬用于降低乳腺癌高风险女性发病率。
1998年，曲妥珠单抗（Trastuzumab）
The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approves trastuzumab, a monoclonal antibody that targets cancer cells that overproduce the protein HER2, for the treatment of women with HER2-positive metastatic breast cancer. Trastuzumab is later approved for the adjuvant (post-operative) treatment of women with HER2-positive early-stage breast cancer.
FDA批准曲妥珠单抗用于治疗HER2阳性的转移的乳腺癌女性患者。曲妥珠单抗后又被批准用于辅助（术后）治疗早期的HER2阳性的乳腺癌患者。
2001年，甲磺酸伊马替尼（Imatinib Mesylate）
Results of a clinical trial show that the drug imatinib mesylate, which targets a unique protein produced by the Philadelphia chromosome, is effective against chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML). Later, it is also shown to be effective in the treatment of gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GIST).
临床试验表明，甲磺酸伊马替尼可以作用于费城染色体产生的特异性蛋白，有效对抗慢性髓细胞白血病。之后，它又被证明可以有效治疗胃肠道间质瘤。
2003年，NCI资助的前列腺癌预防试验（NCI-Sponsored Prostate Cancer Prevention Trial, PCPT)
Results of the NCI-sponsored Prostate Cancer Prevention Trial (PCPT) show that the drug finasteride, which reduces the production of male hormones in the body, lowers a man’s risk of prostate cancer by about 25%.
NCI资助的前列腺癌预防试验表明降低男性体内激素的药物非那司提可以降低男性前列腺患病风险25%。
2006年，NCI的他莫昔芬和雷洛昔芬研究（NCI’s Study of Tamoxifen and Raloxifene, STAR）
Results of NCI’s Study of Tamoxifen and Raloxifene (STAR) show that postmenopausal women at increased risk of breast cancer can reduce their risk of developing the disease if they take the antiestrogen drug raloxifene. The risk of serious side effects is lower with raloxifene than with tamoxifen.
NCI的他莫昔芬和雷洛昔芬研究显示绝经后的乳腺癌高危女性使用抗雌激素药物雷洛昔芬可以降低乳腺癌患病风险。雷洛昔芬比他莫昔芬引起严重副作用的风险要小。
2006年，加卫苗（Gardasil）
The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approves the human papilloma virus (HPV) vaccine Gardasil, which protects against infection by the two types of HPV that cause approximately 70% of all cases of cervical cancer. NCI scientists developed the underlying technology used to make Gardasil.
FDA批准人乳头瘤病毒疫苗加卫苗，它可以防止两种HPV病毒感染，这两种病毒引起了70%的子宫颈癌。NCI的科学家研发了用于生产加卫苗的基础技术。
2009年，卉妍康（Cervarix）
The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approves Cervarix, a second vaccine that protects against infection by the two types of the human papilloma virus (HPV) that cause approximately 70% of all cases of cervical cancer worldwide. NCI scientists developed the underlying technology used to make Cervarix.
FDA批准卉妍康，第二个防止两种HPV病毒感染的疫苗。NCI的科学家研发了用于生产加卫苗的基础技术。
2010年，首个人类癌症治疗疫苗（The First Human Cancer Treatment Vaccine）
The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approves sipuleucel-T, a cancer treatment vaccine that is made using a patient’s own immune system cells (dendritic cells), for the treatment of metastatic prostate cancer that no longer responds to hormonal therapy. It is the first (and so far only) human cancer treatment vaccine to be approved.
FDA批准了癌症治疗疫苗sipuleucel-T，它可以利用病人自身的免疫系统细胞（树状突细胞）治疗转移的、激素疗法不响应的前列腺癌。它也是第一个（迄今为止唯一一个）被批准的人类癌症治疗疫苗。
2010年，NCI资助的肺癌筛查试验（NCI-Sponsored Lung Cancer Screening Tiral, NLST)
Initial results of the NCI-sponsored Lung Cancer Screening Trial (NLST) show that screening with low-dose helical computerized tomography (CT) reduced lung cancer deaths by about 20% in a large group of current and former heavy smokers.
NCI资助的肺癌筛查试验表明，使用小剂量螺旋CT筛查可以降低现在和之前的重度吸烟者20%的肺癌死亡率。
2011年，易普利姆玛（Ipilimumab）
The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approves the use of ipilimumab, a monoclonal antibody, for the treatment of inoperable or metastatic melanoma. Ipilimumab stimulates the immune system to attack cancer cells by removing a “brake” that normally controls the intensity of immune responses.
FDA批准单克隆抗体易普利姆玛用于治疗手术不能治或者转移的黑色素瘤。易普利姆玛可以移除正常状态下控制免疫反应强度的“刹车”，刺激免疫系统去攻击癌细胞。
2012年，NCI资助的前列腺、肺、结肠和卵巢癌筛查试验（NCI-Sponsored PLCO Cancer Screening Trial）
Results of the NCI-sponsored PLCO Cancer Screening Trial confirm that screening people 55 years of age and older for colorectal cancer using flexible sigmoidoscopy reduces colorectal cancer incidence and mortality. In the PLCO, screened individuals had a 21% lower risk of developing colorectal cancer and a 26% lower risk of dying from the disease than the control subjects.
NCI资助的前列腺、肺、结肠和卵巢癌筛查试验证实55岁以上人群可屈性乙状结肠镜检查可以降低结肠直肠癌的发病率和死亡率。在这次试验中，与对照组相比，筛查患者结直肠癌风险降低21%，因此死亡的风险降低26%。
2013年，曲妥珠单抗共轭复合物（Ado-Trastuzumab Emtansine, T-DM1)
The FDA approves ado-trastuzumab emtansine (T-DM1) for the treatment of patients with HER2-positive breast cancer who were previously treated with trastuzumab and/or a taxane drug. T-DM1 is an immunotoxin (an antibody-drug conjugate) that is made by chemically linking the monoclonal antibody trastuzumab to the cytotoxic agent mertansine, which inhibits cell proliferation by blocking the formation of microtubules.
FDA批准曲诺珠单抗共轭复合物（T-DM1）用于治疗曲诺珠单抗或者紫杉醇耐药的HER2阳性的乳腺癌患者。T-DM1是一个免疫毒素（抗体-药物共轭），化学上通过连接曲诺珠单抗和细胞毒性药物mertansine生成，可以通过阻断微管形成抑制细胞增殖。
2014年，癌症的DNA分析（Analyzing DNA in Cancer）
Researchers from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) project, a joint effort by NCI and the National Human Genome Research Institute to analyze the DNA and other molecular changes in more than 30 types of human cancer, find that gastric (stomach) cancer is actually four different diseases, not just one, based on differing tumor characteristics. This finding from TCGA and other related projects may potentially lead to a new classification system for cancer, in which cancers are classified by their molecular abnormalities as well as their organ or tissue site of origin.
来自于一项由NCI和NHGRI联合资助的癌症与肿瘤图谱计划（TCGA）的研究者通过分析超过30种人类癌症的DNA和其他分子改变发现，胃癌基于癌症特征，其实是4中不同疾病，而不是一种。TCGA和其他计划的研究很有可能推动新的癌症分型系统，即使用分子异常结合组织、器官原发部位进行分类。
2014年，Pembrolizumab
The FDA approves pembrolizumab for the treatment of advanced melanoma. This monoclonal antibody blocks the activity of a protein called PD1 on immune cells, which increases the strength of immune responses against cancer.
FDA批准pembrolizumab用于治疗晚期黑色素瘤。此单克隆抗体可以阻断免疫细胞中PD1蛋白的活性，增强免疫系统对癌症的反应性。